1. 稻草人论证(Strawman)
  2. 滑坡谬误(Slippery slope)
  3. 片面辩护(special pleading)
  4. 赌徒谬误(The Gambler's Fallacy)
  5. 假两难(推理、论证)(False dilemma)
  6. 因果谬误(Causal Fallacy)
  7. 诉诸人身谬误(英语:ad hominem fallacy)
  8. 既定观点问题(英语:loaded question)
  9. 诉诸群众(拉丁语:Argumentum ad populum)
  10. 窃取论点(英语:begging the question)
  11. 诉诸权威(英语:Appeal to Authority)
  12. 诉诸自然(英语:appeal to nature)

24条常见谬误中英精简版(1-12)

【转】逻辑谬误列表(序言)
【转】逻辑谬误列表(1-12)
【转】逻辑谬误列表(13-24)
【转】逻辑谬误列表(例子)

1. 稻草人论证(Strawman)

错误表述他人的论据,使之容易被攻击

通过夸张错误表述,或者完全伪造他人的论据,得以使自己显得有理有据而位于有利位置,不过这种不诚实的行为用于暗中破坏合理的辩论。

Strawman

Misrepresenting someone’s argument to make it easier to attack.

By exaggerating, misrepresenting, or just completely fabricating someone's argument, it's much easier to present your own position as being reasonable, but this kind of dishonesty serves to undermine rational debate.

After Will said that we should put more money into health and education, Warren responded by saying that he was surprised that Will hates our country so much that he wants to leave it defenceless by cutting military spending.

第一条:稻草人
你歪曲了别人的观点,使你自己能够更加轻松的攻击别人。
你夸张、歪曲,甚至凭空创造了别人的观点,来让你本身的观点显得更加合理。这是一种极端不诚实的行为,这不但影响了理性的讨论,也影响了你自己观点的可信度。因为如果你可以负面的歪曲别人的观点,你就有可能从正面歪曲自己的观点。
例子:小明说国家应该投入更多的预算来发展教育行业,小红回复到:“想不到你这么不爱国,居然想减少国防开支,让外国列强有机可乘。” 小红就犯了稻草人谬误。


2. 滑坡谬误(Slippery slope)

是一种非形式谬误,使用连串的因果推论,却夸大了每个环节的因果强度,而得到不合理的结论。
有些说法将连续体谬误也归为滑坡谬误,但近来已较少这样使用。

滑坡谬误的典型形式
“如果发生A,接着就会发生B,接着就会发生C,接着就会发生D,……,接着就会发生Z”
而后通常会明示或暗示地推论“Z不应该发生,因此我们不应允许A发生”。
A至B、B至C、C至D、……等因果关系好似一个个“坡”,从A推论至Z的过程就像一个滑坡。

滑坡谬误的问题在于,每个“”的因果强度不一,有些因果关系只是可能、而非必然,有些因果关系相当微弱,有些因果关系甚至是未知或缺乏证据的,因而即使A发生,也无法一路滑到Z,Z并非必然(或极可能)发生。

相对地,若有充足证据显示每个“坡”都有合理、强烈的因果连结,即不构成滑坡谬误。比如:数学证明过程

Slippery-Slope

Asserting that if we allow A to happen, then Z will consequently happen too, therefore A should not happen.

The problem with this reasoning is that it avoids engaging with the issue at hand, and instead shifts attention to baseless extreme hypotheticals. The merits of the original argument are then tainted by unsubstantiated conjecture.

Colin Closet asserts that if we allow same-sex couples to marry, then the nextthing we know we’ll be allowing people to marry their parents, their cars and even monkeys.

第五条:滑坡谬误
你搞得好像如果A发生了,那么Z也一定会发生会,以此来表示A不应该发生。
你不讨论现下的事物(A),而是把讨论重心转移到了意淫出来的极端事物(Z)。因为你没能给出任何证据来证明A的发生一定会造成极端事物Z的发生,所以这是一种诉诸恐惧的谬误,也影响了人们讨论A时候的客观性。
例子:小红反对同性恋婚姻,因为她认为如果我们允许同性恋结婚,那么就会有人想要和桌子、椅子结婚。小红犯了滑坡谬论。


3. 片面辩护(special pleading)

是一种非形式谬误,主张某些情况是一般性原则例外,却提出无关的理由。

人类是一种很有趣的生物,他们对犯错误有一种愚蠢的厌恶。许多人宁愿创造一些方法以能够持坚陈旧的观念,也不愿意欣然接受通过更好的理解去改变自己的想法所能带来的益处。 (意思大概就是宁愿千方百计的坚持自己以前的想法,也不愿意改变自己的想法,尽管改变想法可以明明可以使自己获益)

Special-Pleading

Moving the goalposts or making up exceptions when a claim is shown to be false.

Humans are funny creatures and have a foolish aversion to being wrong. Rather than appreciate the benefits of being able to change one’s mind through better understanding, many will invent ways to cling to old beliefs.

Edward Johns claimed to be psychic, but when his ‘abilities’ were tested under proper scientific conditions, they magically disappeared. Edward explained this saying that one had to have faith in his abilities for them to work.

第九条:片面谬误
当你的观点被证明是错误的时候,你用特例来给自己开脱。
人类都不喜欢被证明是错的,所以当他们被证明是错的时候总会想办法给自己开脱。人总是觉得自己以前觉得正确的东西必须是正确的吗,所以总能找到理由让自己阿Q一下。只有诚实和勇敢的人才能面对自己的错误,并且承认自己犯错了。
例子:小红说自己有特异功能,能用塔罗牌算出未出生小孩的性别,但是孩子生下来后发现猜错了,于是她就说是算命的人缺乏信仰。小红犯了片面谬误。


4. 赌徒谬误(The Gambler's Fallacy)

亦称为蒙地卡罗谬误(The Monte Carlo Fallacy),是一种概率谬误,主张由于某事发生了很多次,因此接下来不太可能发生;或者由于某事很久没发生,因此接下来很可能会发生。

赌徒谬误的思维方式像是如此:抛一枚公平的硬币,连续出现越多次反面朝上,下次抛出正面的概率就越大,抛出反面的概率就越小。(从概率上面来说,单独的每次抛出硬币概率,都是独立随机事件,都是50%)

The-Gambler_s-Fallacy

Believing that ‘runs’ occur to statistically independent phenomena such as roulette wheel spins.

This commonly believed fallacy can be said to have helped create a city in the desert of Nevada USA. Though the overall odds of a ‘big run’ happening may be low, each spin of the wheel is itself entirely independent from the last.

Red had come up six times in a row on the roulette wheel, so Greg knew that it was close to certain that black would be next up. Su ering an economic form of natural selection with this thinking, he soon lost all of his savings.

第十三条:赌徒谬误
你认为随机事物的发生和之前发生的事情是有相关性的。
有人在看到独立的随机事件(比如抛硬币)时,总觉得会和前面的事情有相关性(前面连着五个正面,下一个肯定要是反面了。)


5. 假两难(推理、论证)(False dilemma)

又称非黑即白(black-or-white)、伪(假)二分法、伪二择(选)一法、伪两面法、双刀法等,是提出少数选项(一般是两个,但有可能是三个或更多)要人从中择一,但这些选择并未涵盖所有的可能性。非黑即白是一种非形式谬误。

非黑即白是基于对排中律误用【排中律:形式逻辑的基本规律之一,指在同一时间、同一关系下,对同一对象所作的两个互相矛盾的判断,其中必有并且只有一个是真的,不能有中间状况。】
排中律只适合衡量,非此即彼的二元观念(例如“对与错”、“真与假”等等),用于其他范畴未必恰当。要破解此类谬误,可证明除了论证中提出的选项外,还有其他可能。

有时,假两难是被刻意提出,以迫使他人做出选择的;但其他时候,它是因不小心忽略其他可能性而成,而非蓄意造成的。

Black-or-white

Where two alternative states are presented as the only possibilities, when in fact more possibilities exist.

Also known as the false dilemma, this insidious tactic has the appearance of forming a logical argument, but under closer scrutiny it becomes evident that there are more possibilities than the either/or choice that is presented.

Whilst rallying support for his plan to fundamentally undermine citizens’ rights, the Supreme Leader told the people they were either on his side, or on the side of the enemy.

第十九条:非黑即白
你把黑和白作为仅有的可能,却忽略了其它可能性的存在。
你使用了简单粗暴的假二分法,来掩盖其它可能性的存在。你想通过非黑即白的选择来误导讨论,破坏辩论的建设性。
例子:在谈到反恐战争时,总统说如果你不支持反恐战争,你就是支持恐怖分子。总统这里犯了非黑即白的谬误。


6. 因果谬误(Causal Fallacy)

虚假原因(英语:false cause)或乱赋因果(拉丁语:non causa pro causa),是一种非形式谬误,泛指各种未有充分证据便轻率断定因果关系的不当推论。

许多人会将事物之间的联系(这些事物一起发生依次发生)混淆为它们之间的因果(一个事物实际上导致了另一个事物的发生)。有时候,这种联系只是偶然的,或者它是可以被归因于一个常见的原因。

False-cause

Presuming that a real or perceived relationship between things means that one is the cause of the other.

Many people confuse correlation (things happening together or in sequence) for causation (that one thing actually causes the other to happen). Sometimes correlation is coincidental, or it may be attributable to a common cause.

Pointing to a fancy chart, Roger shows how temperatures have been rising overthe past few centuries, whilst at the same time the numbers of pirates havebeen decreasing; thus pirates cool the world and global warming is a hoax.

第二条:错误归因 你从两个事物可能存在相关性,就得出一个事物是造成另一个事物的原因。
你看到了两个事物同时存在,就觉得其中一个事物是另一个的起因。你的错误在于,同时存在的两个事物未必有因果关系,可能这两个事物有共同的起因,或者两个事物根本没有因果关系,它们直接的共存只是巧合。一个事情比另一个事情先发生同样不能说明两个事物肯定存在因果性。
例子:小红指出,过去几个世纪全球海盗数量减少,全球温度在升高,从而得出是海盗的数量的减少造成了气候变化,海盗能够降低全球温度。小红犯了错误归因的谬误。


7. 诉诸人身谬误(英语:ad hominem fallacy)

指借由与当前论题无关个人特质,如人格、动机、态度、地位、阶级或处境等,作为驳斥对方或支持己方论证的理据。诉诸人身又称作“对人不对事”、“因人废言”或“因人设事”、“以人废言”。

诉诸人身可诉诸负面特质(也称作人身攻击谬误)、正面特质、或中立特质。

人身攻击的结果可能导致,在实际上没有涉及到,别人论据本身的情况下中伤他们。

Ad-Hominem

Attacking your opponent’s character or personal traits in an attempt to undermine their argument.

Ad hominem attacks can take the form of overtly attacking somebody, or casting doubt on their character. The result of an ad hom attack can be to undermine someone without actually engaging with the substance of their argument.

After Sally presents an eloquent and compelling case for a more equitable taxation system, Sam asks the audience whether we should believe anything from a woman who isn’t married, was once arrested, and smells a bit weird.

第六条:人身攻击
你讨论时针对对方的人格、动机、态度、地位、阶级或处境等,而进行攻击或评论,并以此当作提出了理据去驳斥对方的论证或去支持自己的论点。
人身攻击时不一定是直接进行攻击,也可能是通过背后捅刀子、暗示听众等等方式来造成对对方人格的质疑。你试图用你对别人人格的攻击来取代一个有力的论述。更多关于人身攻击。
例子:当小明提出了一个很合理的关于基础设施建设的提议的时候吗,小红说她不相信任何小明说的话,因为小明不爱国,经常批评政府,不懂得感恩。小红犯了人身攻击的谬误。


8. 既定观点问题(英语:loaded question)

有时也称复合问题(英语:complex question;拉丁语:plurium interrogationum),系在问题中掺入预设的观点,对方一旦回答,就等同承认这些观点是真的。如果回答者并未同意该预设,仅是因正面回答问题而被迫承认,以其回答证成预设则属谬误。

既定观点问题谬误,对于转移合理辩论路线特别有效,这是由于人们易于激动或是易被煽动的本性。既定观点问题的接收者,会被迫加强他们的自我防范,从而可能导致慌乱或是处于不利地位。

Loaded-Question

Asking a question that has an assumption built into it so that it can’t be answered without appearing guilty.

Loaded question fallacies are particularly eff ective at derailing rational debates because of their inflammatory nature - the recipient of the loaded question is compelled to defend themselves and may appear flustered or on the back foot.

Grace and Helen were both romantically interested in Brad. One day, with Brad sitting within earshot, Grace asked in an inquisitive tone whether Helen was having any problems with a fungal infection.

第十条:诱导性问题
你在提出问题的时候加入了诱导的成分,使得对方只能按着你的意思来回答。
你试图用诱导性的问题来逼对方回答你提出的低级问题,从而破坏理性的讨论。
例子:小红怀疑自己的丈夫孙越搞外遇,为了一探究竟,于是就问他:“陈轩的屁股上是不是有个胎记?”小红使用的就是诱导性问题。


9. 诉诸群众(拉丁语:Argumentum ad populum)

是一种逻辑谬误、一种社会心理的状态、也是一种宣传的技巧,常被称为“从众”,代表人类害怕在社会中被孤立,因而向社会其他多数靠拢的一种过程。

诉诸群众尚有许多称呼,如诉诸多数(appeal to the majority)、诉诸大数(Argumentum ad numerum)、诉诸民主(appeal to the democracy)、诉诸信念(appeal to belief)、共识谬误(consensus fallacy)、乐队花车谬误(bandwagon fallacy)等等。

这种论据的瑕疵在于,一个观念的流行性跟它的正确性没有丝毫关联。如果真有这种关联的话,那么根据流行的观念,地球在历史上很长的时间里确实就是(天圆)地方的。

Bandwagon

Appealing to popularity or the fact that many people do something as an attempted form of validation.

The flaw in this argument is that the popularity of an idea has absolutely no bearing on its validity. If it did, then the Earth would have made itself flat for most of history to accommodate this popular belief.

Shamus pointed a drunken finger at Sean and asked him to explain how so many people could believe in leprechauns if they’re only a silly old superstition. Sean, however, had had a few too many Guinness himself and fell off his chair.

第十四条:乐队花车
你试图说明因为很多人都在做同一件事情/相信同一件事物,这件事情就是对的。
一个事物/观点的流行程度和它本身是否合理没有关系。地球是球形的,在人们相信地球是平的时代地球也是球形的,地球才不管你信不信它呢。
例子:看到《货币战争》怎么那么畅销,小红相信一定是罗斯柴尔德和共济会在背后操纵着整个世界。小红犯了乐队花车谬误。


10. 窃取论点(英语:begging the question)

(英语:begging the question 或question begging;拉丁语:petitio principii),又称乞求论点、乞题、丐题等等,是在论证时把不该视为理所当然的命题预设为理所当然,这是一种不当预设的非形式谬误。

这个逻辑性不连贯的论据通常在,人们已有一个根深蒂固的假设时发生。因此他们会将,已经占据他们脑海的观点,理解为是别人给出的。循环论证坏大多数情况下是因为它不是非常好。

Begging-The-Question

A circular argument in which the conclusion is included in the premise.

This logically incoherent argument often arises in situations where people have an assumption that is very ingrained, and therefore taken in their minds as a given. Circular reasoning is bad mostly because it’s not very good.

The word of Zorbo the Great is flawless and perfect. We know this because it says so in The Great and Infallible Book of Zorbo’s Best and Most Truest Things that are Definitely True and Should Not Ever Be Questioned.

第二十条:窃取论点
你采用循环论证的方法来证明一个被包含在前提里面的观点。
这是一种逻辑智商破产的谬误,因为你把你的前提假设默认为真的,然后利用循环论证的方式来证明它。
例子:KengDie教的经文《KengDie Sutra》里面说的东西都是真理,因为在《KengDie Sutra》第一章第二段里面提到了“KengDie所述都是真理。”


11. 诉诸权威(英语:Appeal to Authority)

(英语:Appeal to Authority;拉丁语:Argumentum ad Verecundiam)或伪托权威、援假权威,是一种特殊类型的归纳论证,通常以统计三段论的形式来表达。虽然某些类别的诉诸权威有时会构成有力的归纳论点,但是诉诸权威通常都是被误用的。

非常重要的一点是,这种谬误不应当用于,无视专家或科学的论述观点。诉诸权威不是正当的论据,但也不能因此认为忽视一个被证实为,在某个问题方面学识渊博的专家的主张是合理的,除非你跟他在那个方面有着类似层次的认识。

Appeal-to-Authority

Saying that because an authority thinks something, it must therefore be true.

It’s important to note that this fallacy should not be used to dismiss the claims of experts, or scientific consensus. Appeals to authority are not valid arguments, but nor is it reasonable to disregard the claims of experts who have a demonstrated depth of knowledge unless one has a similar level of understanding.

Not able to defend his position that evolution ‘isn’t true’ Bob says that he knows a scientist who also questions evolution (and presumably isn’t herself a primate).

第十五条:诉诸权威
你利用一个权威人物/机构的观点来取代一个有力的论述。
要证明一个观点,只是摘录别人的观点是不够的, 至少要知道所提到的权威为什么有那样的观点。因为权威人物/机构也是会犯错误的,所以不能无条件的假设合理性。当然,权威人物/机构的观点有可能是对的,所以不能只因为对方使用了诉诸权威的谬误就认定这个观点肯定是错的。
例子:小红不知道怎么反驳进化论,于是就说:“我老公孙越是大科学家,他觉得进化论是错的。”小红犯了诉诸权威的额谬误。


12. 诉诸自然(英语:appeal to nature)

(英语:appeal to nature;拉丁语:argumentum ad naturam)是一种非形式谬误,系主张某个现象很自然,因而是可取的;或主张某个现象不自然,因而是不可取的。

许多自然的东西也被认为是好的,但这个可以使我们思考产生偏见。不过自然本身并不意味着好或坏。比如,谋杀可以被认为是非常自然的,不过这不意味着它是正当的。

Appeal-to-Nature

Making the argument that because something is ‘natural’ it is therefore valid, justified, inevitable, good, or ideal.

Many ‘natural’ things are also considered ‘good’, and this can bias our thinking; but naturalness itself doesn’t make something good or bad. For instance murder could be seen as very natural, but that doesn’t mean it’s justifiable.

The medicine man rolled into town on his bandwagon o ering various natural remedies, such as very special plain water. He said that it was only natural that people should be wary of ‘artificial’ medicines like antibiotics.

第二十一条:诉诸自然
你认为一个事物是“自然”的,所以它是合理、必然并且更好的。
一个事物是自然的并不一定代表它就更好。互相杀戮是大自然中普遍存在的现象,但是大多数人都认为我们不应该互相屠杀。
例子:小红认为吃草药肯定比吃人工制造的药有效,因为草药更加“自然”。小红犯了诉诸自然的谬误

未完

下一篇 逻辑谬误列表(13-24)